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| At first flash of Eden, We
race down to the sea. Standing there on Freedom's shore. Waiting for the sun |
|
Jim Morrison 1970 |
The pioneering giant Aristarchus's
ideas fell into oblivion because they led away from the
main-stream that had already been laid down by the less
cosmology oriented schools formed in the wake of the
giants of philosophy, Plato and Aristotle.
The only other astronomer from antiquity who is known by
name and who is known to have supported Aristarchus'
heliocentric model was Seleucus
of Babylonia
(190 BC, fl. 150s BC) , a Mesopotamian
astronomer who lived a century after Aristarchus during
the time Hipparchus and his systemization of the prior
millennium of accumulated knowledge gathered for the
first time at the Alexandria Library. In 150 BC,
Seleucus attributed the ocean tides to the stirring of
air caused by the rotation of the earth and its
interaction with the revolution of the moon.
According to Plutarch, Seleucus may have even proved the double motion of the earth, that is, rotation on its own axis and around the sun, in other words, to proved what was advanced by Aristarchus as a simple hypothesis." in his A History of Medicine goes on to say that the heliocentric theory was hardly mentioned for centuries until Seneca (ca. 54 BC- ca. 39 AD) posed the question as a possibility.
Hipparchus was a contemporary of Seleucus. Hipparchus is thought to be the greatest astronomer of antiquity, and called by many the father of astronomy. Although very little of his writing has survived is credited with many of the discoveries from the first great scientific revolution by the academic orthodoxy. Yet he rejected the heliocentric system of Aristarchus, despite the new evidence presented during his day by Seleucus on scientific grounds.
Discovery of the precession of the equinoxes is generally attributed to the Greek Hipparchus (ca. 150 B.C.), though the difference between the sidereal and tropical years was known to Aristarchus much earlier (ca. 280 B.C.) It is true that Hipparchus was the first to really understand it, measure it and generally convert it from the mythology of the Babylonians to hard science.
| Aristarchus of Samos ( 310 BC - ca. 230 BC) | |||||||||
|
an island just off the coast of Turkey |
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Today Aristarchus is acclaimed as
the scientist with the vision to be the first to propose
a huge universe. However he was also known to Copernicus
for pointing out that if according to mathematical
observation, the sun was much
larger than the earth then the likelihood was that the
smaller body (the earth) revolved around the larger (the
sun) rather than the reverse. Like Copernicus he also
sided on the side of discretion in his day and withdrew
from the role of advocacy in the face of calls for his
prosecution for the crime of "impiety."
With the exception of Seleucus, we do not know other names of ancient astronomers or scientists who supported his finding of a heliocentric solar system where the planets revolved around the sun. Aristarchus' advanced ideas on the movement of the Earth are known primarily from the survived writing of Archimedes and Plutarch; his only extant work is a short treatise, “On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon.”
Studying
the relative positions of the sun, moon, and Earth,
Aristarchus concluded that during the half-moon each of
them occupy respective points on a right triangle. He
then reasoned that the Pythagorean theoremcould be
applied to determine the ratio of the sun-Earth distance
and the moon-Earth distance. In fact, his proof of this
is best expressed today as a trigonometric formula. It is from the writings of Archimedes and Plutarch that Aristarchus' heliocentric hypothesis of 260 B.C. became known. As articulated by Aristarchus, the hypothesis accounted for the apparent motion of the heavenly bodies and diurnal motion of the stars. He not only proposed that the sun is fixed and that the Earth revolves around it, but also that the Earth rotates on its own axis. Aristarchus was roundly criticized--his contemporaries marshaled Aristotelian logic to refute his premise as untenable--although he was apparently never persecuted. The groundwork for such an idea had been prepared by Pythagorean philosophers. Philolaus of Crotona (fl. 440 B.C.) postulated a universe of concentric spheres at the center of which was a central fire. Earth, an anti-Earth, and the other heavenly bodies, including the Sun, all moved in circular orbits about this central fire. Furthermore, Hicetas of Syracuse (fl. fifth century B.C.) attributed an axial rotation to Earth. Aristarchus combined these ideas into a true heliocentric model. His universe was spherical with a stationary Sun at its center and the stars fixed at the periphery. Following Hicetas, he had Earth rotate about its axis. He then introduced the revolutionary concept of Earth traveling in a circular orbit about the Sun. Earth's
orbital motion implied solar and stellar parallax.
Aristarchus argued, respectively, that Earth's orbital
radius was so small in comparison with the Sun's
distance and the distance of the stars so great that
neither effect was large enough to observe. Aristarchus
thus believed the stars to be infinitely far away, and
saw this as the reason why there was no visible
parallax, that is, an observed movement of the stars
relative to each other as the Earth moved around the
Sun.
The Ptolemaic system, formulated in the 2nd century, which, though considered incorrect today, still manages to calculate the correct positions for the planets to a very useful degree of accuracy. It is interesting to note that Ptolemy, himself, in his Almagest points out that any model for describing the motions of the planets is merely a mathematical device, and, since there is no actual way to know which is true, the simplest model that gets the right numbers should be used.
|
| Selecus the Babylonian |
|
The only
Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a
heliocentric
model of planetary motion was
Seleucus of Seleucia
(b. 190 BC). Seleucus is known from the writings of
Plutarch. He supported the heliocentric theory where the
Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved
around the Sun. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even
proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what
arguments he used. According to Lucio Russo, his arguments were probably related to the phenomenon of tides. Seleucus correctly theorized that tides were caused by the Moon, although he believed that the interaction was mediated by the Earth's atmosphere. He noted that the tides varied in time and strength in different parts of the world. According to Strabo (1.1.9), Seleucus was the first to state that the tides are due to the attraction of the Moon, and that the height of the tides depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun. According to Bartel Leendert van der Waerden, Seleucus may have proved the heliocentric theory by determining the constants of a geometric model for the heliocentric theory and by developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model. He may have used trigonometric methods that were available in his time, as he was a contemporary of Hipparchus. |
| Archimedes on the view of Aristarchus | ||
|
Aristarchus’ book on the planetary system with the Sun in the center did not survive, and we know of it only through references to its content, chiefly by Archimedes.
Archimedes (c. 287 BC – c. 212 BC), who was twenty-five years his junior, wrote: “Aristarchus brought out a book consisting of certain hypotheses. . . . His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, and that the Earth revolves about the Sun in the circumference of a circle, the Sun lying in the middle of the orbit.” He also added that according to Aristarchus who is in contradiction to “the common account” of astronomers, the universe is many times larger than generally assumed by astronomers, and the fixed stars are at an enormous distance from the Sun and its planets.(1) Aristarchus regarded the Sun as one of the fixed stars, the closest to the Earth. “Aristarchus sets the Sun among the fixed stars and holds that the Earth moves round the sun’s circle (i.e., ecliptic)” referred another author, centuries later.(2) As Archimedes said, the view of Aristarchus conflicted with the common teaching of the astronomers, and he also quoted it only to put it aside disapprovingly. One of the contemporaries of Aristarchus, Cleanthes, wrote a treatise “Against Aristarchus.” (3) Whatever his scientific argument may have been, he accused Aristarchus of an act of impiety. Plutarch wrote in his book Of the Face in the Disc of the Moon (De facie in orbe lunae) that Cleanthes “thought it was the duty of the Greeks to indict Aristarchus of Samos on the charge of impiety for putting in motion the Hearth of the Universe, this being the effect of his attempt to save the phenomena by supposing heaven to remain at rest and the Earth to revolve in an oblique circle, while it rotates, at the same time, about its own axis.” (4) We do not know whether there was any actual court action and verdict; however, we know that a verdict of judges, even if unanimous, could not make the Sun a satellite of the Earth. Not even a scientific tribunal can do this, not even if it is presided over by Archimedes and the most illustrious men of the generation sit as judges.
The
spokesman of the scholarly world was Dercyllides, who announced
that “we must assert the Earth, the Hearth of the house of the
Gods, according to Plato, to remain fixed, and the planets with
the whole embracing heaven to move and reject the view of those
who brought to rest the things which move and set in motion the
things which by their nature and position are unmoved, such a
supposition being contrary to the theories of mathematicians.(5)
Archimedes, like Leonardo da Vinci who likely studied him, designed weapons of war. These were actually used until his City of Syracuse on the island of Sicily which was eventually taken by the Romans in the 2nd Punic war following their alliance with the Mother Goddess Cybele. General Marcus Claudius Marcellus is said to have taken back to Rome two mechanisms used as aids in astronomy, which showed the motion of the Sun, Moon and five planets. "When Gallus moved the globe, it happened that the Moon followed the Sun by as many turns on that bronze contrivance as in the sky itself, from which also in the sky the Sun's globe became to have that same eclipse, and the Moon came then to that position which was its shadow on the Earth, when the Sun was in line.[23][24]" |
| Hipparchus in Ptolemy's Almagest | ||
|
Rhodes & Alexandria : |
||
| The
exact dates of Hipparchus life are not known, the date of
his birth (ca. 190 BC) was calculated by Delambre based on clues
in his work. Evidence does show Hipparchus was in
Alexandria in 146 BC and in Rhodes
near the end of his career in 127 BC and 126 BC.
Hipparchus famous star catalog was incorporated into the
one by Ptolemy, and may be reconstructed by subtraction of
two and two thirds degrees from the longitudes of Ptolemy's
stars.
Hipparchus was in the news in 2005, when it was again proposed (as in 1898) that the data on the celestial globe of Hipparchus or in his star catalog may have been preserved in the only surviving large ancient celestial globe which depicts the constellations with moderate accuracy, the globe carried by the Farnese Atlas. Hipparchus is recognized as the first mathematician known to have possessed a trigonometry table, which he needed when computing the eccentricity of the orbits of the Moon and Sun. He tabulated values for the chord function, which gives the length of the chord for each angle. He did this for a circle with a circumference of 21,600 and a radius (rounded) of 3438 units: this circle has a unit length of 1 arc minute along its perimeter. He tabulated the chords for angles with increments of 7.5°. Trigonometry was a significant innovation, because it allowed Greek astronomers to solve any triangle, and made it possible to make quantitative astronomical models and predictions using their preferred geometric techniques. Much of Hipparchus work was confirming the validity of the periods he learned from the Chaldeans or Babylonians with his newer observations. Preserved examples date from 652 BC but the key insight by Hipparchus may have been transforming these records to the Egyptian calendar, which uses a fixed year of always 365 days (consisting of 12 months of 30 days and 5 extra days): this makes computing time intervals much easier. Ptolemy dated all observations in this calendar. Hipparchus was the first to show that the stereographic projection is conformal, and that it transforms circles on the sphere that do not pass through the center of projection to circles on the plane. This was the basis for the astrolabe. Besides geometry, Hipparchus also used arithmetic techniques from the Chaldeans. He was one of the first Greek mathematicians to do this, and in this way expanded the techniques available to astronomers and geographers.
Before Hipparchus, Meton, Euktemon, and their pupils at
Athens had made a solstice observation (i.e., timed the moment
of the summer solstice) on June 27, 432 BC (proleptic Julian
calendar). Aristarchus is said to have done so in 280 BC, and
Hipparchus also had an observation by Archimedes. Hipparchus
himself observed the summer solstice in 135 BC, but he found
observations of the moment of equinox more accurate, and he made
many during his lifetime. Ptolemy gives an extensive discussion
of Hipparchus' work on the length of the year in the Almagest and quotes many observations that Hipparchus made or
used, spanning 162 BC to 128 BC. Toomer summarises the contributions of Hipparchus in this area when he writes [1]:- ... it seems highly probable that Hipparchus was the first to construct a table of chords and thus provide a general solution for trigonometrical problems. A corollary of this is that, before Hipparchus, astronomical tables based on Greek geometrical methods did not exist. If this is so, Hipparchus was not only the founder of trigonometry but also the man who transformed Greek astronomy from a purely theoretical into a practical predictive science. Hipparchus is most often mentioned as discoverer of the precession of the equinoxes. His two books on precession, On the Displacement of the Solsticial and Equinoctial Points and On the Length of the Year, are both mentioned in the Almagest of Claudius Ptolemy. According to Ptolemy, Hipparchus measured the longitude of Spica and other bright stars. Comparing his measurements with data from his predecessors, Timocharis and Aristillus, he concluded that Spica had moved 2° relative to the autumnal equinox. He also compared the lengths of the tropical year (the time it takes the Sun to return to an equinox) and the sidereal year (the time it takes the Sun to return to a fixed star), and found a slight discrepancy. Hipparchus concluded that the equinoxes were moving ("precessing") through the zodiac, and that the rate of precession was not less than 1° in a century. Ptolemy followed up on Hipparchus' work in the 2nd century. He confirmed that precession affected the entire sphere of fixed stars (Hipparchus had speculated that only the stars near the zodiac were affected), and concluded that 1° in 100 years was the correct rate of precession. After him many Greek and Arab astronomers had confirmed this phenomenon. Ptolemy compared his catalogue with those of Aristyllus, Timocharis, Hipparchus and the observations of Agrippa and Menelaus of Alexandria from the early 1st century and he finally confirmed Hipparchus' empirical fact that the poles of the celestial equator in one Platonic year (approximately 25,777 sidereal years) encircle the ecliptical pole.
Currently, this annual motion is about 50.3 seconds of arc per
year or 1 degree every 71.6 years. The process is slow, but
cumulative. A complete precession cycle covers a period of
approximately 25,765 years, the so called Platonic year, during
which time the equinox regresses a full 360° through all twelve
constellations of the zodiac.
Precessional movement is also the determining factor in the length of an astrological age. In ancient times the precession of the equinox referred to the motion of the equinox relative to the background stars in the zodiac; this is equivalent to the modern understanding. It acted as a method of keeping time in the Great Year. |
| Chinese Astronomy |
|
The long tradition in
China of searching the sky for celestial omens has therefore led
to an early and unsurpassed precision in star catalogues.
The Chinese did not follow the Western
tradition of grouping stars according to their brightness but
rather grouped stars according to their location. Also, the
Chinese formed their constellations from only a small number of
stars. (A few (five) Chinese constellations were patterned in
the same way as those used in Western Europe. These were: (1)
the Great Bear, (2) Orion, (3) Auriga, (4) Corona Australis, and
(5) the Southern Cross
The Chinese Dunhuang manuscript (named after the town on the Silk Road near where it was discovered) is, excluding astrolabes, the oldest existing portable star map known. A Chinese star chart possibly dating from the 7th century AD mapped the heavens with an accuracy unsurpassed until the Renaissance, according to research. The fine paper scroll, measuring 210 by 25 centimetres, (82 by 10 inches) displays no less than 1,345 stars grouped in 257 non-constellation patterns. |
| Egyptian Astronomy | ||
|
Astronomy was used in positioning the pyramids. One of the instruments used was called "Merkhet," which could mean "indicator." It consisted of a horizontal, narrow wooden bar with a hole near one end, through which the astronomer would look to fix the position of the star. The other instrument, called the "bay en imy unut," or palm rib, had a V-shaped slot cut in the wider end through which the priest in charge of the hours looked to fix the star.
They also used astronomy in their calendars. There life revolved the annual flooding of the Nile. This resulted in three seasons, the flooding, the subsistence of the river, and harvesting. These seasons were divided into four lunar months. However, lunar months are not long enough to allow twelve to make a full year. This made the addition of a fifth month necessary. This was done by requiring the Sirius rise in the twelfth month because Sirius reappears around the time when the waters of the Nile flood. Whenever Sirius arose late in the twelfth month a thirteenth month was added. This calendar was fine for religious festivities, but when Egypt developed into a highly organized society, the calendar needed to be more precise. The "Sothic rising" of Sirius coincided with the beginning of the solar year only once every 1456 - 1460 years (because of precession of the equinoxes and proper motion of Sirius it was usually a few days earlier than the 1460 years that the ancients had predicted). This rare event took place in AD 139 during the reign of the Roman emperor Antonius Pius, and was commemorated by the issue of a special coin at Alexandria. Earlier heliacal risings would have taken place in around 1321-1317 BC and 2781-2777 BC. At 1100 BC, Amenhope created a catalogue of the universe in which five constellations are recognized. These listed 36 groups of stars called decans. These decans allowed them to tell time at night because the decans will rise 40 minutes later each night. |
| Mayan Astronomy | ||
Like
the Aztec and Inca who came to power later, the Maya believed in
a cyclical nature of time. The rituals and ceremonies were very
closely associated with celestial/terrestrial cycles which they
observed and inscribed as separate calendars. The Maya priest
had the job of interpreting these cycles and giving a prophetic
outlook on the future or past based on the number relations of
all their calendars. They also had to determine if the "heavens"
or celestial matters were appropriate for performing certain
religious ceremonies.
The Maya were very interested in zenial passages, the time when the sun passes directly overhead. The latitude of most of their cities being below the Tropic of Cancer, these zenial passages would occur twice a year equidistant from the solstice. To represent this position of the sun overhead, the Maya had a god named Diving God
Different symbols are brought together in the ball game.
Archaeologists think the ball symbolized the sun and the game
re-enacted its apparent orbit around the Earth. The sun was
worshipped as a god and by playing the game, one became somewhat
akin to the Sun-God. But the game might also have signaled a
changing season, so that it served a purpose as well. Since
agrarian societies require a timekeeper to regulate agricultural
tasks, these rituals were vital to the Mayan society's survival. |
| Modern Cosmology |
|
In 1915, Albert Einstein developed the theory of General Relativity, which states that the speed of light is a constant and that the curvature of space and the passage of time are linked to gravity. Einstein believed the Universe was unchanging. He inserted a mathematical device known as the “Einstein Cosmological Constant” into his calculations to make them fit the concept of an unchanging Universe. A few years later, in 1917, Dutch astronomer Willem de Sitter did away with the Einstein Cosmological Constant and used the Theory of General Relativity to show that the Universe may be always expanding. In about 1920, American astronomer Harlow Shapley calculated the size of the Milky Way galaxy and determined that the Sun is not at the center of the galaxy, as was previously believed. Dutch astronomer Jan Oort then showed that the galaxy is rotating about its center. Our view of the Universe was revolutionized in the 1920s when American astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered that the fuzzy or spiral shaped objects astronomers had seen in the sky were, in fact, other galaxies. At about the same time, Vesto Slipher discovered that the galaxies were expanding outward, away from each other. Thus the Universe was shown to be much larger and older than previously thought, and growing, confirming de Sitter’s theory. Since 1998, a number of observations have been made that imply that not only is the Universe expanding, but it is doing so at an accelerated pace, as the galaxies speed away from each other at an ever increasing rates. Prior to these observations it was believed the Universe was expanding at a constant speed. |
|
Let the sun shine. ---Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) |
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| Colossus of Rhodes, Rhodes was a great center of learning in antiquity sharing masters with Alexandria. It was particularly well known for its school of Astronomy. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Religion stands, the Church blocking the sun.
---Stephen Spender (1909-1995) |
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| Babylonians | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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The
Sumerians, who settled in Mesopotamia around 4000 BC, mark the
first example of a people who worshipped the sun, moon, and
Venus. They considered these heavenly bodies gods, or the homes
of gods. The moon god’s name was Nanna, the sun god was called
Utu, and the god of Venus was named Inanna. These were not the
only gods the Sumerians worshipped; in fact, other gods,
especially those of creation, were more important in the
Sumerian pantheon. The Akkandians, near Sumer, adopted the sun,
moon and Venus gods, changing their names. The Babylonian
priests correctly documented Venus’s appearances The Assyrian
Era marked a new phase in the development of astrology. This
time period lasted from about 1300 to 600 BC The Assyrians
conquered Babylon in 729 BC, and the inevitable changing of the
gods occurred. At this time, the sun god, called Shamash now,
was deemed high god. The Assyrians had developed constellations.
including the 12 that form today's Zodiac. The next phase in the history of astrology is the New Babylonian period (600-300 BC). Some of the prominent astrologers of this period were Kiddinu, Berossus, Antipatrus, Achinopoulus, and Sudines. |
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The
Babylonians were the first to name the Days of the week after
the sun, moon and planets.[citation needed] Their naming scheme
is still widely followed today in many languages, including
English, and goes as follows:
The Babylonians were also the first to set out the twelve houses of the horoscope. These represent the basic outline of the houses as they are still understood today. The houses were numbered from the east downward under the horizon, and represented areas of life on the following pattern:
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Berossus, a priest of Bel in Babylon, about 260 B.C. translated into Greek the standard Babylonian reference work on Astrology and Astronomy. He compiled the following king list in his second book based on archives in the Temple of Marduk, which were themselves copies of ancient inscriptions. According to the later writings of Josephus, Syncellus, Eusebius and others, Berossus obtained his information from the ancient archives of the temple of Belus at Babylon. Included in his writings was a list of kings who had reigned before the Great Flood. According to his list Xisuthros was the hero of the Flood.
If we take the Sumerian time unit of one soss = 60 years and divide it into the precessional period of 25,920 we obtain 432, that magical number given by Berossus. |
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| Tarsus competed with Alexandria and Athens as a seat of great learning during the high civilizations under Greek and Roman rule. Aristarchus of Samos (310 BC - c. 230 BC) was the first to note that if the sun was larger than the earth then the earth likely revolved around the sun. Rhodes was affiliated with the heliocentric view which differed from Plato's widely accepted geocentric cosmology. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Arab | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Abu Abdullah
Al-Battani (858 – 929 AD) Abu Abdullah Al-Battani was a very famous and influential astronomer in Islamic astronomy, making many discoveries in lunar and planetary orbits. However, his contributions are not widely credited in modern astronomy, but were still very important in its development. |
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Biruni,
11th century, suggested that if the
Earth rotated
on its axis this would be consistent with
astronomical theory. He discussed heliocentrism but
considered it a philosophical problem.
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| Copernicus | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Nicolaus Copernicus published the definitive statement of his system in De Revolutionibus in 1543. Copernicus began to write it in 1506 and finished it in 1530, but did not publish it until the year of his death. Although he was in good standing with the Church and had dedicated the book to Pope Paul III, the published form contained an unsigned preface by Osiander stating that the system was a pure mathematical device and was not supposed to represent reality. Possibly because of that preface, the work of Copernicus inspired very little debate on whether it might be heretical during the next 60 years. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Over time,
however, the Catholic Church began to become more adamant about
protecting the geocentric view.
Pope Urban VIII,
who had approved the idea of Galileo's publishing a work on the
two theories of the world, became hostile to Galileo. Over time,
the Catholic Church became the primary opposition to the
Heliocentric view. The favored system had been that of Ptolemy, in which the Earth was the center of the universe and all celestial bodies orbited it. A geocentric compromise was available in the Tychonic system, in which the Sun orbited the Earth, while the planets orbited the Sun as in the Copernican model. The Jesuit astronomers in Rome were at first unreceptive to Tycho's system; the most prominent, Clavius, commented that Tycho was "confusing all of astronomy, because he wants to have Mars lower than the Sun." (Fantoli, 2003, p. 109) But as the controversy progressed and the Church took a harder line toward Copernican ideas after 1616, the Jesuits moved toward Tycho's teachings; after 1633, the use of this system was almost mandatory. For advancing heliocentric theory Galileo was put under house arrest for the last several years of hi Galileo's heresy trial in 1633 involved making fine distinctions between "teaching" and "holding and defending as true". The official opposition of the Church to heliocentrism did not by any means imply opposition to all astronomy; indeed, it needed observational data to maintain its calendar. In support of this effort it allowed the cathedrals themselves to be used as solar observatories called meridiane; i.e., they were turned into "reverse sundials", or gigantic pinhole cameras, where the Sun's image was projected from a hole in a window in the cathedral's lantern onto a meridian line. An annotated copy of Principia by Isaac Newton was published in 1742 by Fathers le Seur and Jacquier of the Franciscan Minims, two Catholic |